Starlink Satellite Constellation and A New Wave of International Space Disputes

Mahmoudi, Seyed Hadi; Moradinasab, Sima

doi:10.22034/jsst.2025.1571

Starlink Satellite Constellation and A New Wave of International Space Disputes

Document Type : Original Research Paper

Authors

Seyed Hadi Mahmoudi

Sima Moradinasab

Assistant Professor, Faculty of Law, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran

10.22034/jsst.2025.1571

Abstract

Starlink Satellite Constellation, as one of the large constellations, provides internet services globally. Despite advantages of Starlink activities, use of these satellite constellations poses legal challenges. In certain circumstances, these challenges result in arising ‘international space disputes’. Particularly, this takes place when Starlink provides its services in the territory of third States, without their consent and authorization. Starlink internet services are also used during armed conflicts. While Starlink activities are conducted by a private company, they influence States. That said, the main question is by which mechanisms, new space disputes arising from Starlink Satellite Constellation can be resolved. This paper hypothesizes that the existing means and procedures for the resolution of international space disputes are inadequate and should be modified. Moreover, the number of space disputes between private companies and States is expected to increase, due to the expansion of space activities carried out by private sector. With that, in the era of satellite constellations, any effort to fill the gaps regarding the resolution of space disputes arising from Starlink activities is highly necessary. In-system analysis of dispute settlement procedures within general international law on the one hand and international space law (as a special regime), on the other hand, will prove the said hypothesis.

Keywords

Satellite Constellations

Starlink

International Space Law

International Law

Dispute Settlement

Subjects

space law

Article Title Persian

منظومۀ ماهواره‌ای استارلینک و موج جدیدی از اختلافات بین‌المللی فضایی

Authors Persian

سیدهادی محمودی

سیما مرادی نسب

استادیار، دانشکده حقوق، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی، تهران، ایران

Abstract Persian

منظومۀ ماهواره‌ای استارلینک یکی از منظومه‌های ماهواره‌ای بزرگ است که خدمات اینترنتی را در مقیاس جهانی ارائه می‌کند. علیرغم مزیت‌های ناشی از فعالیت‌های استارلینک، استفاده از این منظومۀ ماهواره‌ای با چالش‌های حقوقی همراه است. گاهی اوقات این چالش‌ها به حدی می‌رسد که به ظهور «اختلافات بین‌المللی فضایی» منتهی می‌شوند. این امر به ویژه زمانی اتفاق می‌افتد که استارلینک بدون رضایت و مجوز کشور‌های ثالث، خدماتی را در سرزمین آن کشور‌ها ارائه کند. حالت دیگر استفاده از خدمات اینترنتی استارلینک در مخاصمات مسلحانه است. اگرچه فعالیت‌های استارلینک از سوی یک شرکت خصوصی انجام می‌شود، امّا دولت‌ها را تحت‌تأثیر قرار می‌دهد. از این رو، سؤال اصلی آن است که کدام یک از سازکارهای موجود می‌توانند به فیصله اختلافات جدید فضایی ناشی از منظومه‌ ماهواره‌ای استارلینک کمک کند؟ فرضیۀ این نوشتار آن است که آیین‌های موجود برای حل اختلافات بین‌المللی فضایی ناکافی بوده و می‌بایست اصلاح شوند. همچنین، پیش‌بینی می‌شود که نظر به گسترش فعالیت‌های فضایی بخش خصوصی، حجم اختلافات فضایی فی‌ما‌بین شرکت‌های خصوصی و دولت‌ها در آینده بیشتر شود. با این وصف، در عصر منظومه‌های ماهواره‌ای، تلاش برای رفع‌ خلاءهای موجود در زمینۀ حل‌ اختلافات فضایی ناشی از فعالیت‌های استارلینک به شدت ضروری است. تحلیل درون سیستمی از آیین‌های حل‌و‌فصل اختلافات حقوق بین‌الملل عام از یک‌طرف و حقوق بین‌الملل فضا به‌مثابۀ یک رژیم خاص از طرف دیگر به اثبات فرضیۀ گفته‌شده منتهی می‌شود.

Keywords Persian

منظومه‌های ماهواره‌ای

استارلینک

حقوق بین‌الملل فضا

حقوق بین‌الملل

حل‌و‌فصل اختلافات

[1] Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Resolution 62/217, United Nations General Assembly, 2007.

[2] Guidelines for the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities, A/AC.105/L.315, COPUOS 61st session, 2018.

[3] S. H. Mahmoudi and S. Moradinasab, "In search of the most appropriate mechanisms for resolving the disputes arising from large satellite constellations," International Institute of Space Law (IISL), vol. 65, no. 2, pp. 85-96, 2022, https://doi.org/10.5553/IISL/2022065002002.

[4] L. Wood, "Satellite Constellation Networks," in Interworking and Computing over Satellite Networks, 1^st ed., Yongguang Zhang, ed., Boston: Springer, 2003, pp. 13-34, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-0431-3_2.

[5] T. Pultarova, "Starlink satellites: Facts, tracking and impact on astronomy." SPACE, (2025-09-25). [Online]. Available: https://www.space.com/spacex-starlink-satellites.html

[6] World Population Review. "Starlink Countries 2025." (2025-09-03) [Online]. Available: https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/starlink-countries

[7] Charter of the United Nations, San Francisco,1945.

[8] Constitution of the International Telecommunication Union, International Telecommunication Union, Geneva, 1992.

[9] Statement by the Delegation of the Islamic Republic of Iran Sixty-seventh session of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 19 June 2024, Vienna, p. 3.

[10] S. Kuthunur, "Russia and China are threatening SpaceX’s Starlink satellite constellation, new report finds, SPACE, (2025-04-14). [Online]. Available: https://www.space.com/space exploration/tech/russia-and-china-are-threatening-spacexs-starlink-satellite-constellation-new-report-finds

[11] C. Johnson, "The law of outer space: A self-contained regime?," in Fifty Years of Space Law, P. Achilleas and S. Hobe, Eds. Martinus Nijhoff, vol. 21, 2020, pp. 124-158.

[12]S. H. Mahmoudi and S. Moradinasab, "Responsibility of states in outer space as lex specialis derogat legi generali," German Journal of Air and Space Law, vol. 72, no. 4, pp. 590-603, 2023.

[13] Convection on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, United Nations, 1972, Article IX.

[14] Outer Space Treaty, 1967.

[15] G. M. Goh, "Dispute settlement in international space law: A multi-door courthouse for outer space," Ph.D. dissertation, International Institute of Air and Space Law: Faculty of Law, Leiden University, 2007, P. 94.

[16] Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (Moon Agreement), U.S. Government Printing Office, New York: USA, 1979, Article 8 (3).

[17] S. Hobe, B. Schmidt Tedd, K. U. Schrogl, and G. M. Goh, Cologne Commentary on Space Law, Heymanns, 2009, p. 573; Draft Code prepared by the David Davies Memorial Institute, Article 8(2).

[18] A/AC.105/C.2/2025/CRP.14.

[19] M. Simpson, Ch. Johnson, "Lacunae and silence in international space law – a hypothetical advisory opinion from the international court of justice," in 60^th Conference IISL Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space, Adelaide, Australia, 2017, Paper 38030.

[20] D. Goedhuis, "Conflicts of law and divergencies in the legal regimes of air space and outer space," in: Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law, vol. 109, Nijhof: Brill, 1963, p. 324.

[21]"Rules of liability for injury and loss caused by the operation of space vehicles" Rep.

[22] U.N. Doc. A/AC.105/C.2/L.4.

[23] U.N. Doc. A/AC.105/C.2/L.7.

[24] S. H, Mahmoudi, "In search of a bridge between international court of justice and international space law’, in Randi and Intelligence on the Path to Justice and Freedom: Collected Articles dedicated to Dr. Mohebi, 1^st Ed. Tehran: Iran, Chamber of Commerce, Endustries, Mines and Agriculture, The House of Humanities Thinkers, 2024, p. 7, (in Persian).

[25] P. G. Dembling, "Cosmos 954 and the space treaties," Journal of Space Law, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 129-136; 1978;

[26] S. Grove, "Cosmos 954: issues of law and policy," Journal of Space Law, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 137-146, 1978.

[27]P. P. C. Haanappe, "Some observations on the crash of Cosmos 954," Journal of Space Law, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 147-151, 1978.

[28] United Nations Charter, 1945, Article 96.

[29] "Dispute concerning delimitation of the maritime boundary between Mauritius and Maldives in the Indian Ocean (Mauritius/ Maldives)," International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, Judgment, Preliminary Objections, para. 203, 205, 2021.

[30] C. Peck and R. S. Lee, Increasing the Effectiveness of the International Court of Justice, Proceedings of the ICJ/UNITAR Colloquium to Celebrate the 50^th Anniversary of the Court, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1997, pp. 450, 460.

[31] V. Dadwal and M. Macdonald, "Arbitration of space-related disputes: case trends and analysis," in 71^st International Astronautical Congress (IAC), Paris, France, 2020, Art. no. IAC-20-E714.58206.

[32] "Optional rules for arbitration of disputes relating to outer space activities," Permanent Court of Arbitration, 2011.

[33]M. Williams, "Dispute resolution regarding space activities," in Handbook of Space Law, F. von der Dunk and F. Tronchetti, Eds. USA: Edward Elgar, 2015, pp. 1033, 1034.

[34] Final draft of the revised convention on the settlement of disputes related to space activities, Committee of the International Law Association, 1998.

[35] PCA, Specialized Panel of Arbitrators, pp. 1-3.

[36] S. H. Mahmoudi, International Space Law, 1rd Ed. Tehran: Iran, Samt Publications, 2014, p. 70, (in Persian).

[37] S. Moradinasab, "Institutional fragmentation of global space governance and the urgent need for the establishment of the Global Space Organization," in International Institute of Space Law, 2023, p. 2.

[38] Constitution of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU Constitution), International Telecommunication Union Agency, 1992, Article 56.

[39] R. S, Jakhu, ‘Dispute Resolution under the ITU Agreements’, Discussion paper submitted to the PCA Advisory Group, pp. 2, 4, 2010.

[40] "Radio Regulations Board Geneva," in 96^th Meeting of the Radio Regulations Board, 2024, pp. 13-14.

[41] "Measures to limit unauthorized uplink transmissions from earth stations," in World Radiocommunication Conference, RESOLUTION 22 (WRC-19), RES22-1, 2019, p. 208.